Strategy case analyses Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Strategy case analyses - Assignment Example According to the European Commission, & Statistical Office of the European Communities (2007), in recent years, tourism has become the largest and most progressive industry with international revenues generated in tourism in 2011 reaching about 1.030 billion dollars. The market share of new destinations-former transitional, underdeveloped and developing countries have been on the rise. Their market share has increased from 30 percent in the 80’s to 47 percent in 2011 and was estimated to reach 57% by the end of 2013 (p 23). In many countries, tourism is the preferred option for economic and social development and it is, therefore, included in their political and developmental strategies. An example is Kenya, where tourism is the core of the economy after agriculture. Tourism is an unpredictable industry influence by a number of factors. Events like economic recession, natural disasters, terrorism acts, weather conditions and government policies significantly affect this industry. These determine where and how people spend their holidays. For example, an increase in the frequency of terror attacks and bombing may cause governments to issue travel advisories and alerts to its people not to visit the affected areas. This industry relies on advertisement and promotional tactics employed by the travel companies, governments and airlines. For example, in the UK, the Tourist Information Center (TIC) located all over the country serves the purpose of promoting and marketing tourism to local and international tourists. The key players in this industry in the UK include travel agents and tour operators like Thomas Cook and low cost airlines like Jet2, Easy Jet, Monarch and Ryaniar. Companies identify and implement a strategic plan by matching its capabilities with the demands of its environment in this process. It analyzes the initiatives and measures undertaken by top management in a company regarding resources and performance in

Law and Morality Essay Example for Free

Law and Morality Essay It is not an everyday occurrence that someone must decide the fate of anothers life. The dilemma of making a decision that someone must die in order for the others to survive, can obviously be troubling. The process in which the termination of ones life may be easy to make, but to justify that decision is the most difficult one. This paper is given a situation in which a decision of taking ones life is essential. The situation is that a nuclear war has occurred, which has destroyed most of the centres of civilization. There are five people that are that have escaped death by finding their way to a nuclear bunker. These five people consist of a pregnant woman; an old man, who is a retired judge; two teenagers a fourteen-year-old boy and a sixteen-year-old girl; and a young and healthy woman who is a doctor. They all have been there for fifteen days and they must remain there for an additional fifteen days before they can be rescued. The problem is that although there are five of them in the bunker, there is only enough food for four people to survive for the remaining fifteen days. Rationing the food will not be of any use, because all will die with such a plan. The only way for most of the survivors to live for the next fifteen days is for one to die. Somehow they have contacted an outside source to advise them on the questions of Who shall die? , and How should the decision of choosing the person be carried out? These are all very difficult questions to answer, but something must be done. It is unlikely that someone will voluntarily allow someone to kill them so that the others may live, that is why another form of decision making must be allowed. The best way to do so is probably by that outside aid to suggest that they try drawing lots. For example whoever pulls the shortest straw is the one who dies. With no time to procrastinate, this would seem the most time efficient and fairest way to choose who will die. Of course a reason must be provided to the person who had drawn the shortest straw, and that is the objective of this paper. This essay will explain how the decision will be made that will ultimately take one of the survivors lives to save the remaining four people. From that explanation of the decision made, it will attempt to justify it. This paper proposes to explain and justify the decision by using legal tools such as Law and Morality, the Meta Rule, and The Doctrine of Necessity. The advice provided on how to carry out the unfortunate death of an innocent person may not be a right one, but perhaps it will be legally and morally justified. Law and morality play a large role here, mainly because there is a legal issue and a moral issue associated with the predicament. The reason law has a part in the situation is that after the decision is made, it will be examined legally and must be accountable for its consequences. Morality has its place too, because many will find it morally wrong to take ones life despite any justification. . there is some connection between law and morality, but the two are clearly not identical. First, morality is only concerned with right or wrong, with the good and evil; law is concerned with lots of things on which there is no right and wrong procedures for land registration, incorporation and so on. Second, morality is to some extent uncertain and a matter for each individual, law tries to be objective, written down in black and white and there for all to see. Third, morality often leaves things vague and subject to general principle, law goes into specifics. 1 From that description of law and morality, it is obvious how they relate to the issue here. When the time comes for one of the five people in the bunker eventually to die, it must be legally justified. The reason for this is that murder is illegal, unless legally justified. 2 On the other hand, reasons for the killing must be provided to put to ease those who question the dilemma in accordance to morality. Since law and morality are equally important and both are evenly delicate when dealing with this issue, advising the survivors on what to do will not be easy. Pleasing everybody is impossible, whether it is examined from a legal viewpoint or a moral one. However, if the situation is analysed with both the law and morality issues in mind, there may be a chance that many will see some sort of vindication behind the decision to kill someone. One example that can probably create a good foundation to better explain the complexity of the given situation, is that of the case of R. v. Dudley and Stephens. A basic summary of the case is as follows: Thomas Dudley, Edward Stephens, another man by the name of Brooks, and Richard Parker, who was a boy in his late teens, were the crew of an English yacht. All four of them were cast away in a storm 1,600 miles away from the Cape of Good hope. This boat was not supplied with any water or any food, except a few canned vegetables that lasted them a duration of three days. Being lost at sea, with no food or water, they needed to find someway to keep themselves alive so that they could live long enough for them to be rescued. Many days went by, and within that time they had not eaten or drank anything. Both Dudley and Stephens suggested to Brooks that someone be sacrificed to save the rest, Brooks disagreed, and they never told the boy of the idea. The next suggestion by Dudley and Stephens was that they should draw lots to see who should sacrifice their life to save the others, again Brooks refused and they did not let the boy in on the plan. Eventually the decision that if no vessel were to come around the next day, they should kill the boy. This decision, yet again, came from Dudley and Stephens. Again Brooks disagreed and the boy was never consulted. A day passed and no vessel was in sight. Dudley went to the boy, who was sleeping, and killed him. They fed upon the body of the boy and drank his blood for the following four days when they were finally rescued. After being returned to shore Dudley and Stephens were brought to court, put on trial, and lastly sentenced to death by the court. This decision was eventually brought down to life imprisonment, but then they released Dudley and Stephens after six months. 3 The case of R v. Dudley and Stephens is very similar to that of the one being looked at in this essay. In both cases, each group of people do not have enough or any food to survive long enough to be rescued, someone must die in order for the rest to survive, and both situations have legal and moral repercussions. Both Dudley and Stephens had understandable reasons to kill the young boy in order to survive, and could have escaped being sentenced to death if they had done one thing, consulted the boy. By not consulting the boy, an argument can be formulated to prove that they should have never released Dudley and Stephens from their first sentence of death. The boy never consented to his life being taken away from him, but if he were consulted and provided a reason to why he must be killed then perhaps Dudley and Stephens could have avoided any type of punishment. It is probably safe to assume that the boy would have not wanted his life to be taken away from him, and Brooks obviously rejected all of Dudley and Stephens suggestions, therefore it is apparent that some method of solving disputes was in order. So is the case with the five people in the bunker. Although they are in a dilemma of who and how someone should be chosen to die. Unlike Dudley and Stephens, these five people were able to reach an outside source to aid them with their problem. First of all, this outside source can offer them a method of solving their disputes by administering the Meta Rule. The way in which the Meta Rule operates is as follows, Disputes are resolved by the decision of one or more persons, once arguments from each side of the issue have been put. 4 An outside aid is ideal in such a predicament, because they can offer an objective review of the situation and listen to all the arguments made by those in the bunker; this a process that is called Audialteramparten, which in Latin means to hear both sides. It is important that the decision-maker hear both sides and that the decision-maker also be a generalist. 5 The reason for this, is that by listening to both sides they can know all the concerns that the people in the bunker have, and by being a generalist they can be impartial to the situation, thereby making a rational and fair decision. By imposing the Meta Rule, this outside source can make a decision, and according to the Meta Rule, this must be carried out. Whether or not the decision is wrong does not matter, it is imperative and necessary that one be made to resolve the dispute of who, how, and why someone must die. The doctrine of necessity is a very important notion to this case, because it is necessary that someone die in order for the remaining four survive. ? Necessity knows no law, it is often said. In other words, you cant be held legally liable for an act you had to do. 6 This is what the people in the bunker must remember, and this will legally justify the decision to kill someone. Morally, whether the decision was right or wrong, can be argued till the end of time, but there is no time to accommodate a moral debate. All that is left to do now, is to draw lots and find out who is going to have to die for the others to live. When the selection has been made by lots, the victim yields of course to their fate; or if they resist, force may be employed to coerce division. 7 As harsh as it may sound, if necessity has no legal standing in this situation, it should not stand in any other case. In other words, necessity has been used as an argument to justify ones actions in other cases and is accordingly justifiable in this circumstance. Making a decision on the situation without examining it with knowledge of law and morality, the Meta Rule, and the doctrine of necessity would make it even more difficult to find a rational reason why one of the five people in the bunker should die, let alone justify it. Law and morality illustrated how sensitive a situation such as this can be, and how difficult it is to make a pure legal decision when morals are a large part of everyones lives. The Meta Rule showed that even when the courts are not present to facilitate a case, there is always another method of resolving disputes legally. Finally, the doctrine of necessity explained why some forms of action are necessary and must be taken and applied to a given condition. It is unfortunate that there are cases in which people, whether or not they know each other, must kill someone else to save their own life. It must be even more disturbing, rather than unfortunate, for a person to sacrifice their life for the welfare of another, nevertheless it is noble. Perhaps this goes to show that when it is absolutely necessary to kill someone in order to preserve ones own life, murder is always justifiable. Works Cited 1 Patrick Fitzgerald and King Mc Shane. Looking at Law: Canadas Legal System. 4th ed. (Ottawa: Tri-Graphic Printing Ltd. ) 1994. Pg. 3. 2 Carleton Dept. Of Law Casebook Group. Introduction to Legal Studies 2nd ed.. (North York: Captus Press Inc. ) 1995. Pg. 24. 3 Carleton Dept. Of Law Casebook Group. Introduction to Legal Studies 2nd ed. . (North York: Captus Press Inc. ) 1995. Pgs. 19-24. 4 Fraser, D. Fall Term Law Notes for 51. 100A. (Carleton University) 1996. 5 Fraser, D. Fall Term Law Notes for 51. 100A. (Carleton University) 1996. 6 Carleton Dept. Of Law Casebook Group. Introduction to Legal Studies 2nd ed. . (North York: Captus Press Inc. ) 1995. Pg. 25. 7 Fraser, D. Fall Term Law Notes for 51. 100A. (Carleton University) 1996.

The Names Essay -- Literary Analysis, Billy Collins

In the poem â€Å"The Names,† by Billy Collins, the speaker is calmly recalling people’s last names alphabetically as he notices them wherever he goes. At first it seems as though he is playing a game to see how many names he can think of. After reading the whole poem several times, it becomes clear that he is referring to people who died on September 11th. Collins uses imagery, a serious tone, and similes throughout the poem to show appreciation for the memory of the victims that died that tragic day. In the first stanza, it is established that the poem is written in the first person, when â€Å"I† is referring to the speaker, which illustrates this person’s point of view concerning the tragedy of 9/11 during a whole day of events. The speaker begins by setting a tranquil mood as the opening of a long list of last names. In line 1, he says: â€Å"Yesterday, I lay awake in the palm of the night.† He describes the night like a tropical tree gently swaying in a peaceful beach setting. He calmly observes the gentle raindrops dripping slowly down his windows until they disappear in â€Å"A soft rain stole in, unhelped by any breeze, / And when I saw the silver glaze on the windows,† (2-3). For a brief moment, he enjoys going outside to his garden at sunrise to forget the sorrow that death brings when â€Å"In the morning, I walked out barefoot / Among thousands of flowers† (11-12). In the second stanza, the speaker visualizes images within the starry night and a muddy shoreline that symbolize individuals experiencing death-defying events. In line 8, the speaker states â€Å"Names printed on the ceiling of the night.† He is referring to the pattern of stars that draw great figures of Greek Gods, like Mars who is related to strength, energ... ...rassy cemetery is the place where gravestones are placed so the victims will not be forgotten. The speaker also reminds the reader that relatives tend to put the memory of their loved ones â€Å"into the dim warehouse of memory† (53) or in back of their minds so they will not feel so broken hearted. He recalls seeing â€Å"A woman by a window puts a match to a candle† (39) for the memory of a loved one that died from the attack. By the speaker’s comment â€Å"are outlined on the rose clouds† (40), he suggests as though the deceased victims appeared up in heaven. Collins uses visualization, emotions, and comparisons within several natural and man-made objects in respect to all the victims that tragically passed away that dreadful day. By specifically identifying several individuals in this poem, Collins found a way to honor those people that died on September 11, 2001.

library :: essays research papers

Library Collections Reference Collection - The collection contains on-line and print materials on all subjects, but focuses on those subjects that support the research needs of our students and faculty. Some of these sources are encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, glossaries, directories, and atlases. Public computer terminals are located on both the first and second floors. Reference Desk personnel will provide instruction on accessing these materials. Contact the 1st floor Reference Service Desk at Ext. 4410 or (773) 442-4410 for further information. Periodicals - The periodicals collection includes academic journals, magazines, indexes and newspapers across all subject areas and in multiple formats. Materials in paper or microfilm are located on the second floor of the Library. Full text electronic journals may be accessed from any computer on or off-campus (off-campus access is limited to NEIU students, faculty and staff). Contact the 2nd floor Reference Service Desk at Ext. 4572 or (773) 442-4572 for further information. Government Information - The Library is a depository for both Federal and State government publications. The print collection dates from 1963 (federal) and 1968 (state) with some retrospective holdings. In addition, computers are available for accessing information on CD-ROMs or the Internet. This includes Census data, current economic statistics, and a variety of other electronic resources. The Government Information Center is located on the 2nd floor of the Ronald Williams Library. For information call 773-442-4572 (Government Information Reference) or 773-442-4474 (Government Information Librarian). MLRC - Multimedia Learning Resource Center - The MLRC provides access to a variety of media formats to support all subject areas in the NEIU curricula. It brings together materials from the Library's audiovisual materials collection, the Curriculum Materials collection, the University Media Services collection, the Music Listening Room collection, and the Library's special collections in music. For further information or assistance call Ext. 4560 or (773) 442-4560. Curriculum Materials Collection (CMC) - The CMC includes ERIC documents on microfiche, elementary and secondary level textbooks, teacher resource materials, childrens books and magazines, and AV materials. The CMC is located on the 3rd floor of the Library. University Archives - The University Archives collection includes minutes of University meetings, policies and reports, the Internal Budget, Northeastern's student newspaper and yearbooks from 1964 to 1982. University Archives are located in the Lower Level of the Library. For further information call Ext. 4402 or (773) 442-4402. Illinois Regional Archives Depository (IRAD) - A repository of primary source documents on Chicago municipal government as well as genealogical information for Cook County.

The Doping Dilemma

Analytical Summary Paper: The Doping Dilemma In â€Å"The Doping Dilemma†, Michael Shermer writes about the consequences and the ethics behind performance enhancing substances in professional sports. He begins with an anecdote, which describes the feeling of getting â€Å"dropped by your competitors on a climb† (420:2). As described by the author in the development of the story, every athlete has a genetic limitation that regular training cannot exceed (421:4). According to Shermer, the only thing to be done is to dope.Arguing that, in order for an individual to stay competitive nowadays, he needs to make use of performance enhancing substances. Shermer concludes that today’s drugs are better, harder to test, and the incentives usually favor them (421:8/422:9). The author effectively argues that there should be a direct shift on the incentives regarding sports doping. His experience read as a reflective narrative to young competitors who are now starting, and to those who are already veterans.He believes that sports should return to the foundation of celebrating those rewarded by excellence, aided only by their determination to succeed. Shermer points out the scenario professional athletes have been facing since the 1990’s. Making performance enhancing drugs part of the team’s â€Å"medical program†, team members are bound to embrace illegal substances in their preparation before they are cut from the team (421:6). According to Shermer, his reasons for competing did not match the principles behind doping.He was a thirty-year-old academic with a career to return to, cycling just to test his physical limitations. However, he could relate to the young, amateur athletes who earn their living through sports and have no other ambitions in life, other than compete and win. These same athletes, who are convinced that â€Å"everyone else† dopes; therefore, they should do it too (421:7). Even though we rather deceive our m inds from even considering that such competitors use drugs, we are lead to believe that they are left without option and support from athletic departments, teams, and confederations.From my perspective, it is clear why, many times, our â€Å"idols† end up giving in to illicit substances. First of all, due to the evolution of drugs: the industry for these products has experienced an unpredictable growth in demand, making researchers and developers work harder on the final product to be more effective. Second, the competition between takers and testers has been consistently won by those guilty of the cause. Consequently, emphasizing the scientist’s advantage – whose work is constantly and solely dedicated to mislead testers – to over perform them in their own game.In addition to that, I believe that amateur athletes begin their journey as sportsman at a relatively young age. Uneducated and immature, without familiar and technical support to back them up, th ey might end up on the wrong track towards success. Very early the doping chain reaches them: professionals dope in order to stay competitive, and, before they know, they are doping too; however, simply to compete. While Shermer asserts that the third reason for the success of doping is the incentive behind it, he provides multiple concrete ideas to shift the incentive back to competing in compliance.Ideas such as immunity to athletes for past doping; improve the testing methods by doing it more often, through independent agencies right after competitions; reward the development of unknown testing methods; increase the competitor’s penalty and make the appeal system fair and trustful; and finally, disqualify the team even if only one member is under use of drugs. According to the author, Nash equilibrium needs to be reached in sports. This means that, in sports, the appeal to cheating needs to be reverted so that it has a lower utility cost than playing by the book (422:11/42 3:12).From his suggestions, I believe that readers might start to find that sports are not as ethical, truthful and fair as they have once judged to be. Essentially, the public’s disbelief to professional sports is rather due to their shock with reality, than because of the actual cheating taking place. Since the issue with incentives is so acute, Shermer provides a very truthful and transparent analysis in his recommendations to grant – once again – belief to the spectators that sports could possibly become about honor, and not dishonesty.Given that the author is a competitor himself, it makes the reader more likely to consider his words of wisdom, especially because he offers examples of true accounts and events. To emphasize his recommendation analysis and to propose a deeper understanding, he uses the mathematician, John Forbes Nash, to persuade the reader towards his ideology. After reading this, spectators will have a better understanding of the false driv ing force behind the sports industry. However, they will be more incisive when making onesty have a greater utility cost than cheating. Shermer’s analysis not only reveals what has been unknown, but it also raises public pressure on confederations to reward those who really deserve to compete. According to the facts mentioned above, I believe a major change in attitude from big decision makers is needed in order to achieve transparency in sports. Young athletes should be under constant supervision and support, so that they are correctly directed towards professionalism.The right people should consistently check competitors at high-levels, making their will to cheat decrease by escalating the risk of doing so. Finally, I believe that my ideas provoke a deeper understanding of what is behind the public’s superficial vision of sports competition. They emphasize the lack of respect by those who dope, the obvious absence of ethics, and the insufficient structure and support to incoming athletes, making us view and understand that what drives people is not being the best, but coming first – which are two completely different things.

Critical Thinking and Ethics Essays (614 words) - Thought

Critical Thinking and Ethics Essays (614 words) - Thought Critical Thinking and Ethics Victoria Mullally GEN/201 June 1, 2015 Kimberly Drager Critical thinking ethics, who can keep up? Defining these terms individually and together is one way to helping understand what they are and how they can help you as a student and a growing individual. Everyone could give a different answer to the question What is critical thinking? The way I would define it is thinking about things to find new meaning. Asking the w questions is a great way to start. Making sure you can find fact from fiction and informing yourself of such are just a few other benefits of critical thinking. According to "Defining Critical Thinking" (1987), Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing (para. 2). Sounds simple enough- ask questions and get a deeper understanding of what youre asking. Let me just say it may sound easy but there are steps to take when using the critical thinking process. The process of critical thinking requires remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. (Ellis, 2014, p. 205). Each of these steps is a different level of your ability to think critically. You may not have them down in order, you may be better at some steps then others, just remember if you practice thinking with each of these steps you will be on your way to using critical thinking in your everyday life. Applying personal ethics is just as important as using the critical thinking process. Ethics is what you think is right and wrong. Each person has a different style of ethics that is important to them. Ethics are used every day and everywhere. In a professional setting ethics are used to make decision that can affect the entire workplace. I believe this is the reason there should be more than one boss at a company. If only one person uses their personal ethics to make a decision then many others could be affected in a negative way. If more than one person uses their personal ethics to make a decision they can come to a compromise that will work for everyone. The same can be said in social matters. The people of a community have to work together to create an environment we can all be a part of. If people of a community cant come to compromise there would be chaos. On a personal level I prefer to use what is called a relationship lens. This means I care more about the fairness and equality of each person then I do about those with more power. I am said to be blind to equality. I believe in the process of equality too much that I will be blind to the fact that there is a chance of inequality even if the process is fair. Because of these beliefs making decisions, for me, is usually based on how my decision will affect others. I care too much for the treatment of others and equality. I want everyone in any situation to have the same rights, responsibilities, and care for eachother. If I have to make an important decision I want the input from the people around me. In the long run this could also be a downfall for me because the people closest to me become exempt from the equality I desire for everyone. Using ethics and critical thinking together to get through anything in life is going to take practice. Once you understand your personal thought process and the ethics you use to make decisions you will be better off. References Defining Critical Thinking. (1987). Retrieved from https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 Ellis, Dave. Becoming a Master Student, 15e, 15th Edition. Cengage Learning, 2014. VitalBook file

The Terror of the French Revolution - 1793-1794

The Terror of the French Revolution - 1793-1794 1793 January February February 1: France declares war on Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. February 15: Monaco annexed by France. February 21: Volunteer and Line regiments in the French army merged together. February 24: Levà ©e of 300,000 men to defend the Republic. February 25-27: Riots in Paris over food. March March 7: France declares war on Spain. March 9: Representatives en mission are created: these are deputies who will travel to the French departments to organise the war effort and quell rebellion. March 10: The Revolutionary Tribunal is created to try those suspected of counter revolutionary activity. March 11: The Vendà ©e region of France revolts, partly in reaction to the demands of the levee of Feb 24. March: Decree ordering French rebels captured with arms to be executed without appeal. March 21: Revolutionary armies and committees created. Committee of Surveillance established in Paris to monitor strangers. March 28: Émigrà ©s now considered legally dead. April April 5: French General Dumouriez defects. April 6: Committee of Public Safety created. April 13: Marat stands trial. April 24: Marat is found not guilty. April 29: The Federalist uprising in Marseilles. May May 4: First Maximum on grain prices passed. May 20: Forced loan on the rich. May 31: Journee of May 31: the Paris sections rise demanding the Girondins be purged. June June 2: Journee of June 2: Girodins purged from the Convention. June 7: Bordeaux and Caen rise in the Federalist revolt. June 9: Saumur is captured by rebelling Vendà ©ans. June 24: Constitution of 1793 voted on and passed. July July 13: Marat assassinated by Charlotte Corday. July 17: Chalier executed by Federalists. Final feudal dues removed. July 26: Hoarding made a capital offence. July 27: Robespirre elected to the Committee of Public Safety. August August 1: The Convention implements a scorched earth policy in the Vendà ©e. August 23: Decree of levee en masse. August 25: Marseille is recaptured. August 27: Toulon invites the British in; they occupy the town two days later. September September 5: Prompted by the Journee of September 5 government by Terror begins. September 8: Battle of Hondschoote; first French military success of the year. September 11: Grain Maximum introduced. September 17: Laws of Suspects passed, definition of suspect widened. September 22: Start of Year II. September 29: General Maximum begins. October October 3: The Girondins go to trial. October 5: The Revolutionary Calendar is adopted. October 10: Introduction of the Constitution of 1793 halted and Revolutionary Government declared by the Convention. October 16: Marie Antoinette executed. October 17: Battle of Cholet; the Vendà ©ans are defeated. October 31: 20 leading Girondins are executed. November November 10: Festival of Reason. November 22: All churches closed in Paris. December December 4: Law of Revolutionary Government / Law of 14 Frimaire passed, centralising power in the Committee of Public Safety. December 12: Battle of Le Mans; the Vendà ©ans are defeated. December 19: Toulon recaptured by the French. December 23: Battle of Savenay; the Vendà ©ans are defeated. 1794 January February February 4: Slavery abolished. February 26: First Law of Ventà ´se, spreading seized property among the poor. March March 3: Second Law of Ventà ´se, spreading seized property among the poor. March 13: Hà ©rbertist/Cordelier faction arrested. March 24: Hà ©rbertists executed. March 27: Disbanding of the Parisian Revolutionary Army. March 29-30: Arrest of the Indulgents/Dantonists. April April5: Execution of the Dantonists. April-May: The power of the Sansculottes, Paris Commune and sectional societies broken. May May 7: Decree starting the Cult of the Supreme Being. May 8: Provincial Revolutionary Tribunals closed, all suspects must now be tried in Paris. June June 8: Festival of the Supreme Being. June 10: Law of 22 Prairial: designed to make convictions easier, start of the Great Terror. July July 23: Wage limits introduced in Paris. July 27: Journee of 9 Thermidor overthrows Robespierre. July 28: Robespierre executed, many of his supporters are purged and follow him over the next few days. August August 1: Law of 22 Prairial repealed. August 10: Revolutionary Tribunal re-organised so as to cause fewer executions. August 24: The Law on Revolutionary Government reorganises the control of the republic away from the highly centralised structure of the Terror. August 31: Decree limiting the powers of the Paris commune. September September 8: Nantes Federalists tried. September 18: All payments, subsidies to religions halted. September 22: Year III starts. November November 12: The Jacobin Club closed. November 24: Carrier placed on trial for his crimes in Nantes. December December - July 1795: The White Terror, a violent reaction against supporters and facilitators of the Terror. December 8: Surviving Girondins allowed back into the Convention. December 16: Carrier, the butcher of Nantes, executed. December 24: The maximum is scrapped. Invasion of Holland. Back to Index Page 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

Easy Scholarships to Win How to Find and Apply

Easy Scholarships to Win How to Find and Apply SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Applying for scholarships can be stressful and time-consuming, especially if you’re looking at really competitive awards. Wouldn’t it be nice to apply for scholarships thatyou knew you had a really good shot at winning? If you want to get your hands on some easy scholarship money, you’re in the right place. First, I’ll talk a little bit about what it means to be an easy-to-win scholarship. Then, I’ll get to the good stuff by directing you to the places you should look for these awards - you might be surprised at where you can find them - and how to put together a successful application. What Makes a Scholarship Easy to Win? With many of the popular national scholarships (like the Gates Millennium orCoca-Colaawards), you’re competing with several thousands of applicants forvery large sums of money.Even if you’re a great student, and you meet all the qualifications, your chances of winning the scholarship will be pretty slim just due to the sheer number of students applying. When we talk about easy scholarships to win, we’re talking about scholarships where you have a much better chance of walking away with some money (even if the amount is relativelysmall). There are very few scholarships where an award is guaranteed as long as you meetall award criteria (although they do exist - I’ll get to them later).Ultimately, you can’t count 100% on winning mostscholarships, but you can look for scholarships where your chances of winning are at least higher than average. A Small Note: Easy to Win Vs.Easy to Apply There are a ton of scholarships out there with very short, simple, easy applications.Although it’s smart to apply to scholarships like these - it’s not like you’re wasting much time or energy on the application -an easy application is not the same as an easy win. These super simple apps likely attract a ton of applicants. It’s like playing the lottery (except for free) - it doesn’t hurt, but it’s not like you can count on the winnings. Finally, if you come across a scholarship application that's too good to be true, it probably is.If a scholarship organization purports to guarantee winnings to applicants - especially if the application asks you to submit sensitive information (like your SSN) or even payment - it's probably a scam. Be careful about giving out sensitive information - make sure that your applications are going to legitimate organizations As you may have realized by now, there is no short list of easy scholarships to win for all students. In order to find such scholarships, you'll have to do a bit of legwork. These next three steps will walk you through everything you need to know about finding (and winning) easy awards. Step #1: Apply for Niche Awards One of the best ways to find easy scholarships to win is to look for awards with small, niche applicant pools. The smaller the group of potential applicants, the less competition you have to deal with. Scholarships that are primarily looking for students with impressive grades and leadership potential are not what we’re talking about here (although that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t apply to those scholarships). You might have to spend some time thinking about what your â€Å"niche† might be, but trust me - this time will be well spent. You can start by thinking about unique interests/skills, backgrounds, and club/group affiliations you have. You’ll find many niche scholarships targeted towards students who meet these more specific criteria. For example, the College Board’s scholarship search begins with a survey based on many of the criteria listed below - if you identify with any of the items listed below, you may find better and more specific niche scholarship matches. This list isn’t exhaustive, but it covers the most important bases. You can either use these search terms in scholarship-specific search tools or in Google to find award matches. Here’s your preliminary brainstorming list for niche awards: Special Interests or Skills Arts: music, dance, other visual arts Community service Debate Civil rights or social justice activities Writing/Journalism Special Background Ethnic or racial background Religious background LGBTQ Physical or learning disability Health conditions Personal/family veteran status Specific Club or Group Affiliation There are way too many to list, but a few examples on the College Board scholarship search include: Society of Women Engineers Native Daughters of the Golden West NAACP Eagle Scouts Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. Step #2: Apply for Local Scholarships Local scholarships are niche by definition - they’re only really meant for students living in your particular area. They’re often smaller and less competitive than the big national awards, which means your chances ofwalking away with winnings are much better. Narrowing your geographic focus also means narrowing your competition You can search for local awards in a few different ways: Online scholarship search tools (coming soon) - This is the easiest way to get instant access to massive amounts of data. Enter geographic info into scholarship-specific search tools, andGoogleâ€Å"[your hometown/county/state] scholarship† to find the most popular results. Your guidance or college counselor - They tend to be plugged into local scholarship programs, and they may even serve as a reference or letter-writer for recommendations. Local community or cultural centers - These are hubs of local activity that may have info on local scholarship programs. They may even offer scholarships themselves! Want more detailed information? We have a whole guide to finding and winning local awards. Step #3: Check Out "Guaranteed" Scholarships Guaranteed scholarships are awards that you’ll win no matter what, as long as you meet all of the eligibility requirements. Many of these requirements includestrict academic criteria (e.g. minimum standardized test scores, GPA). There are quite a few colleges and universities that give out these guaranteed merit awards if you’re 1) accepted to the school, and 2) have those minimum test scores or GPA.Often, your college app is considered your scholarship app - you’ll be automatically considered for awardswhen you apply to the school.Sometimes, you’ll have to check out schools’ merit awards on your own and submit separate applications. To get more information, you’ll needto have a specific school in mind. Here are the steps you should take to look up possible merit awards at a particular school: Google â€Å"[school name] merit scholarships† - most schools have a separate page designated just for these sorts of scholarship awards. Make sure the scholarships you find are designated for â€Å"entering freshman† - some awards may be meant only for upperclassmen or grad students. Check to see if the school makes a designation between in-state and out-of-state applicants (many public colleges and universities do). Some state schools will give bigger scholarships to non-resident applicants if out-of-state tuition is higher.There may also be differences in award requirements. Finally, check to see if there is a separate application (separate from your college app, that is) or uniquedeadline. Scholarship money is often limited, so you might help your chances of winning cash by applying earlier. To read more about schools that offer money based on academic performance, read our guide on guaranteed scholarships based on ACT/SAT scores. Closing the Deal: Put Together an Awesome Application Once you’ve found the most promising easy-to-win scholarships, you’ll want to follow through by submitting the best applications possible. Here are the most important steps to putting together a winning scholarship application: Make sure you meet all eligibility criteria.Miss just one and you’re likely wasting your time by submitting a full application.Some commonrequirements to look out for include class year, financial need, minimum GPA, and minimum SAT/ACT scores. Ask yourself if you’re a good fit.This is often the difference between a low and high likelihood of winning an award. Are you the target audience here, or do you just technically qualify for the scholarship? Emphasize your ideological ties to the scholarship program (and your ties to the community, if applicable). How do your values align with that of the scholarship program? How are you an active participant in that community, geographic or otherwise? You’re more likely to win if your values and goalsare congruent with thoseof the scholarship organization. Complete ALL PARTS of the application.Before you even start an app, make sure you’ll be able to provide all the documentation that the scholarship asks for. Plan on submitting the app in the exact way that’s asked of you (whether that’s via email, fax, snail mail, etc.). Make sure to meet the deadline.Submit a late application and you’re likely to be disqualified. On the off chance that your application isn't automatically tossed, late submission will definitely not make a good first impression. Don’t wait until the last day to actually send the paperwork in (just in case you run into technical or logistical issues). What's Next? Looking for other ways to make your scholarship search a bit easier? We've got you covered. Start off by checking out scholarships with super simple applications. Next, check out our other top scholarship guides: top awards for high freshmen/sophomores, juniors, and seniors. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Nanyang Technology University and Management theories Essay

Nanyang Technology University and Management theories - Essay Example As to Bedeian (1993), the Hawthorne Studies developed an onset focus on how the employees can be motivated through the approaches used by the management in human relationship. After Hawthorne Studies, a lot of related studies had been conducted by many researches that tried to explain how people from the organization can be best motivated and why motivation of employees is needed (Terpstra, 1979). According to Smith (1994), people from the organization must be motivated for survival; since, employees help the organization to survive. It comes to the point wherein managers like me must understand the need of the people in the organization to ensure that the employees are well-motivated. However, according to Bowen & Radhakrishna (1991), motivating the employees can be the most complex among the many functions of the managers, as people differences occur and needs and interests among individuals in the organization greatly exist. Comparing the needs of younger people and those that grow old in the organization, the younger people tend to be well-motivated with remuneration increases than that of the older ones. As people grows older, challenges in work beco mes more of a motivator than money per se (Kovach, 1987). However, when the managers learn the skills needed in motivating people in the organization, the benefits in the organization can be fully achieved. According to Cranfield School of Management 'Leading and motivating the [your] staff helps bring about' (2008, n.p.): Higher staff retention - A well-motivated person in the organization will not intend to leave the organization as they achieve satisfactions on the organization itself. This in return leads to the reduction of recruitment costs. Management must bear in mind that a person lost in the organization is a skill and time lost of the organization. Higher levels of productivity- The organization benefits from well-motivated people as the people level of productivity is increased. The saying goes that people whose needs and integrity are uplifted work harder than those who are less motivated. More innovation and creativity- People in the organization who are well-motivated to work due to a better understanding of their needs and interests led them to accept better changes and guide them to be more innovative and creative. Higher profits- This is a by-product of increase in production and more innovative and creative people in the organization. A better reputation - A well-established organization brought about by well-motivated people create a better reputation in the industry and trust is built from the points of view of the business world. Understanding the Management Theories In order to fully understand people, the management must understand the different theories behind managing people in the organization. These theories may guide the management to the implementation of the organizations missions and visions in accordance to their programs; as well as these theories may help them to fully evaluate the organization's strengths and weaknesses in terms people management. As I have studied the different th

Internship Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Internship Report - Essay Example Its vision also incorporates operations in a uniform and motivating atmosphere. Its mission identifies facilitating potentials among â€Å"trade and industry sector’s capacities† and sustaining other stakeholders’ interests through effective policymaking and development of strategies to empower resource utilization towards expansion of the nation’s economy (Ministry of Commerce and Industry 1). Objectives of the organization The organization has not outlined its explicit objectives, but its scope, vision, and mission statements as well as its core values imply a number of objectives. The mission statement identifies the organization’s goal of playing a leadership role in the nation’s trade and industries. Its mission statement is more diverse and communicates a number of objectives such as to promote abilities of trade and industry in the nation and to develop and enforce policies that are suitable for economic growth. The ministry’s c ore values, however, imply objectives such as to ensure honesty in the ministry’s undertakings, to ensure transparency in its dealings, and to promote creativity and mastery (Ministry of Commerce and Industry 1). Organizational structure The ministry is organized into geographical branches that undertake its roles and responsibilities across different regions of the nation. The branches, however, operate under consultations and directives from the ministry’s head office (Ministry of Commerce and Industry 1) Reward system Salary, allowances, and benefits Reward is an important concept in organization and influences productivity. The ministry factors in psychological effects of rewards and bases salaries, remuneration and allowances on the value for people, recognition for the efforts and achievements that the people attain in the ministry and the need for employees’ active participation in the ministry’s activities with the aim of fostering and improving i ts working environment. In order to ensure this perspective, the ministry has developed an attitude under the banner, ‘compensation, performance management, communication, and career advancement.’ The ministry’s value for its human resource is evident in its rewards rates that are comparably better than at other government agencies. Offered salaries in the ministry are also based on well-defined employees’ grades with specified salary ranges. Further, the ministry recognizes its employees’ performances through a rewards system that is based on an employee’s level of success and the employee’s grade. Grading The ministry has permanent and casual employees. It has a formal structure that grades permanent employees by their academic qualifications and their work experience. Salaries scale Employees’ job grades determine their salaries and other rewards. The salaries are further reviewed, annually, to ensure consistency with the mar ket demands and salaries that are offered by other agencies. Every department in the ministry, and with consultations from other departmental heads, undertakes the review. These reviews do not immediately affect each employee’s salary but offer a basis to determining possible changes. New recruits are, however, subjected to the running and approved payment scales though departmental heads, and human resource department can hire an employee at a higher rate than the employee’s scale. Another feature of the ministry salaries is an annual review that

Campaign Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Campaign Critique - Essay Example It also aims to demonstrate the world’s commitment to this priority area of health care† (WHO, 2013). Background problem: the spread and increase of life threatening healthcare associated infections Geographical location (which are the countries where the campaign is implemented?) Global (48 countries have participated in this campaign) Target audience(s) Health care workers Approach (advocacy, social marketing, participatory, multi-pronged) Encouragement of health workers using the following tools: 1. System change tool: Alcohol-based handrub planning & costing tool (WHO, 2013) 2. Training/education tool: Hand hygiene - why, how and when brochure (WHO, 2013) 3. Evaluation and feedback tool: Observation form (WHO, 2013) 4. Reminders in the workplace tool: Your five moments for hand hygiene poster (WHO, 2013) 5. Institutional safety climate tool: Sustaining improvement-additional activities for consideration by health-care facilities (WHO, 2013) Dissemination channels (pl ease list the channels or materials) Government health agencies for each participating country. Critique: SAVE LIVES: Clean your hands The WHO campaign SAVE LIVES: Clean your hands targets basic health practices which seek to prevent the transfer of bacteria and of infection from patient to patient and from health worker to patient and vice versa (WHO, 2013). Health workers are always exposed to bacteria, viruses, and other contaminants which in some cases may be infectious and transferrable to other patients, to themselves, and to other health workers (Groll and Grimshaw, 2003). Washing hands has long been part of the health care process, however, there are times when health workers fail to adhere to its appropriate practice. Barriers to hand washing including limited and/contaminated water supply, especially in developing countries can prevent the health workers from actually carrying out their hand washing procedures before and after managing their patients (Mani, 2010). The lack of opportunity to carry out hand washing procedures also interferes with hand washing, especially where there are inadequate facilities for hand washing and where there are numerous patients requiring attention from the health workers (Kampf, 2004). Issues in the inadequate observation of hand washing techniques are seen mostly in developing countries where their health resources and facilities are inadequate, and where the number of patients often overwhelms health worker population (Kampf, 2004). The goals of the WHO campaign on highlighting the importance of hand washing for health workers is an important goal, as it helps energize a health care practice which can potentially bring about significant benefits for the patients and health workers (Larson, et.al., 2007). The goals of the project are also clearly linked to the WHO’s First Global Patient Safety Challenge, referring to clean care and safety care (WHO, 2009). Through the campaign, the WHO has provided a necessary first step towards ensuring patient safety and welfare. Health care associated infections can easily transfer from one patient to another through the contaminated hands of healthcare workers. Improving the hand hygiene practices of health workers decreases infection in various settings (Curtis and Cairnscross, 2003). Public concerns on the increased levels of meticillin resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), as well as Clostridium difficile infection (CDR Weekly, 2003) are just some of the reasons why hand hygiene measures

Advantages of using a team to develop and complete a presentation Essay

Advantages of using a team to develop and complete a presentation - Essay Example Collaborations utilizing the talents and wisdom of knowledgeable persons provide the presentation with a higher level of credibility and in-depth informative aspects far beyond what a single perspective and solitary voice could offer to the audience. It is commonplace in today’s high-tech society for presentations to be produced and delivered by means of a group effort rather than by an individual. It has been found to be much more effectual for numerous associates to speak instead of just a single person speaking for the entire organization or group. A presentation is broken up into several sections with each requiring a specialized knowledge base which is more effectively addressed by an expert in that particular area. One person can hardly be considered the most knowledgeable within an organization regarding every aspect of a complex subject or project. In addition, the audience retains more interest for a longer period of time if the presentation is broken up with differing speakers. When team members speak only on what they know best, this not only allows for a more informative presentation but does not put the burden on one person to speak about unfamiliar aspects of the subject. Each member is confident with their part and thus at ease with the material unlike a single person attempting to cover everything, a confidence which is openly conveyed to the audience. Group presentations also serve to present a cross-section of the organization’s employees instead of viewing just one representative, a major selling point to the intended audience (Friedmann, 2003). Team presentation offers a heightened level of attention for the audience as they are presented with a variety of speakers. When practiced well, the presentation flows more smoothly and coherently with a group effort because, for example, one person might be given the task of operating visual and or audio aids while another focuses on speaking to the audience.

2-1-5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

2-1-5 - Essay Example led â€Å"structural adjustment problems that were exacerbated due to the lack of proper procedures by which the banks could carry out business in their respective areas of operation. Hence, the Lithuanian banking system can be characterized to be in a flux or in movement from a state owned one to a modern banking system. B) The Lithuanian banking system has been included in the common European currency area because of some of the factors discussed above. It has been included in the common European area due to the fact that its banking system has made the transition to the practices of the Euro region. On the other hand, the banking system in Lithuania has started to emerge from its socialist shadow and hence can be said to have matured enough to warrant inclusion into the common Euro area. Though the common Euro area is mainly a monetary union, the fact that the Lithuanian economy is developing a fast rate has resulted in its non-inclusion in the common Euro area. The other reasons or the cost benefit analysis that has been carried out has been in favor of the union with the Euro area because of the perceived gain to the Euro currency because of the relative robustness of the Lithuanian economy. C) The European central bank had a role to play in the transformation of the Lithuanian banking system from a pre-modern one to a modern one. The ECB has extended all possible help to the Lithuanian banking system to make this transition possible. However, the fact that Lithuania is a part of the Euro area has led to a relatively major role for the ECB and the way in which the ECB has been guiding the transition makes it a stronger player than the central bank of Lithuania in the transition process. The ECB has mandated several requirements to the central bank of Lithuania as part of the process for acceptance and it is to the credit of the Lithuanian baking authorities that many of these requirements have been met. D) The major export and import industries of

Advantages of using a team to develop and complete a presentation Essay

Advantages of using a team to develop and complete a presentation - Essay Example Collaborations utilizing the talents and wisdom of knowledgeable persons provide the presentation with a higher level of credibility and in-depth informative aspects far beyond what a single perspective and solitary voice could offer to the audience. It is commonplace in today’s high-tech society for presentations to be produced and delivered by means of a group effort rather than by an individual. It has been found to be much more effectual for numerous associates to speak instead of just a single person speaking for the entire organization or group. A presentation is broken up into several sections with each requiring a specialized knowledge base which is more effectively addressed by an expert in that particular area. One person can hardly be considered the most knowledgeable within an organization regarding every aspect of a complex subject or project. In addition, the audience retains more interest for a longer period of time if the presentation is broken up with differing speakers. When team members speak only on what they know best, this not only allows for a more informative presentation but does not put the burden on one person to speak about unfamiliar aspects of the subject. Each member is confident with their part and thus at ease with the material unlike a single person attempting to cover everything, a confidence which is openly conveyed to the audience. Group presentations also serve to present a cross-section of the organization’s employees instead of viewing just one representative, a major selling point to the intended audience (Friedmann, 2003). Team presentation offers a heightened level of attention for the audience as they are presented with a variety of speakers. When practiced well, the presentation flows more smoothly and coherently with a group effort because, for example, one person might be given the task of operating visual and or audio aids while another focuses on speaking to the audience.

Strategic Management and Business Policy(tenth edition) by Thomas L Essay

Strategic Management and Business Policy(tenth edition) by Thomas L. Wheelen and J. David Hunger (senior in college) MGT485 - Essay Example The Wallace Group is devoid of the vision for the future and is proving not to be a learning organization. According to Wheelen & Hunger, â€Å"organizational learning is a critical component of competitiveness in a dynamic environment† (2006, p. 9). The Wallace Group lacks a vibrant human resource management apparatus that can articulate the changes necessitated to accommodate the growth needs and prospects, efficiently. In order to exploit the opportunities offered by the existing scenario in the best possible manner and to manage the challenges proficiently, there are a number of recommendations. First of all the Wallace Group is required to re-orientate its approach to handle the growing needs of the organization. This re-orientation will involve a major adjustment in the personal management style of Mr. Wallace, his priorities, vision, and future objectives for growth of the company. Mr. Wallace will need to make changes in the organizational structure of the Group to create a conducive environment for a motivated and diversified workforce. To cater for the rapid decision making requirements, middle managers of the company are necessitated to be empowered. Mr. Wallace is hence required to delegate more of his authority. The major organizational changes would involve formulation of a corporate governance policy that will include a board of directors. The board will be responsible for devising str ategies, direction, vision, hire/fire top management, monitor and supervise top management, oversee the use of resources, and care for shareholders’ interests (Wheelen & Hunger, 2006, pp. 36-37). Another important recommendation is to open a reliable and smooth channel of communication. This will ensure feedback of employees and customers reaching the top management without much hitches. In educating the managers to manage an organization as it evolves over time from an entrepreneurial

Moral Responsibility Essay Example for Free

Moral Responsibility Essay ? Most people have natural desires such as getting higher social status; making more money; travelling all around the world; or collecting specific objects like cars, shoes, watches, dishes or stamps. Often this desire becomes a reason why people wake up in the morning, work hard, deal with all their troubles, or patiently save money. Eventually when the person achieves their desire, he/she feels great happiness, and it remains in their lives as a pleasant memory. However, sometimes people have conflicts between their wants and their moral responsibilities. What should human beings put first in their lives? Is there a method that helps human beings to find a balance among different values? My desire was to have designer bags. It started when I was a freshman in college. I had no knowledge about designer brands before I came to college because my parents have never put value on material things and have shown thrifty living is more meaningful than luxury living. I had had no issues with what my parents taught me, but starting in college I have struggled with my original values. My professor made fun of my clothing and accessories, which I bought at the supermarket, with obscure brand logos. She said if I wanted to be a good designer I had to be aware of fashion trends and style, and I also had to use those items. Moreover, the professor advised me that I should treat myself like a professional designer instead of a naive country girl, so I should take more care of my outfit. What she said it made sense to me but it hurt my self-esteem first. After that I started to look at people around me and I realized I had to change from head to toe. I asked my parents to buy new clothes, shoes and accessories, and not at the supermarket. So we went to a department store and I saw the new world at age 19. Everything looked fabulous and beautiful, but also very expensive, especially compared to what I used to wear and carry. That first shopping experience at the luxury department changed my entire value system. I used to give tithe and offering to church without thinking or counting. It was my duty as a Christian and I knew how the church would spend the money that I donate. The church I attended had a partnership with a local orphanage and a nursing home and I regularly went there to serve people with other church members. It was such a significant experience which taught me the spirit of sharing and happiness from contribution to people who are in need. Since my entire values changed, I started to calculate the money I spent for donation and to fulfill myself. I tried to find a few reasons why I did not have to donate. First of all, I worked hard to earn money; second of all, I would sacrifice my short-term wants to save money for a new designer bag. Thirdly, there are many people who are wealthier than I who would give more. A few months after, I had money to buy my first designer bag, so I went to the department store to buy my long-term goal. That bag made me feel happy and satisfied and I found myself showing off my pleasure to people around me.. I thought once I had a bag that I wanted to have it would be just enough, but soon after, I found a new bag that I hoped to have. This started my moral dilemma between satisfying my material greed and the spirit of sharing. I asked my parents to give me wise words about the situation that I faced. They said I should not stop donating money if I feel guilty from it, but I should stop donating money if not getting a bag made me unhappy. They also said I had to think about why I had a part-time drawing teaching job. I said that I worked because I wanted to build my career and to take financial responsibility for myself, so there was no problem with that. I pointed out the amount of fulfillment was greater and longer when I carried out my moral responsibility for orphan children and seniors who were in nursing homes. Therefore I decided to put my moral duty first, but I also made special savings for myself which could afford my personal desire for bags. It seemed the problem was solved but it is not fully solved yet. As my eyes become more sophisticated, my desires grow bigger and more expensive and it will not stop. The utilitarian philosopher, Peter Singer, emphasizes the scientific evidence on conditions of happiness, which shows that once human beings have enough to satisfy their basic needs, they cannot maximize their happiness anymore by gaining wealth. I do partly agree with his opinion because human beings need continuous stimulation, so they work and make progress in their daily lives. The New York Times Op-Ed columnist David Brooks believes that human beings need a reward as motivation in order to work harder and being productive, which means people are supposed to help each other but human beings have natural preference to put themselves as the highest priority, so self-satisfaction is more important than taking moral responsibilities. Although Brooks’ opinion makes sense to me according to my experience, I am not 100% sure which opinion is right and I should follow. In my mind the most important matter is what makes people happier and brings no regret, while finding a balance between self-satisfaction and looking after people who are in need with a true heart.

Bipolar Disorder: Roles of neurotransmitters and signal transduction

Bipolar Disorder: Roles of neurotransmitters and signal transduction This systematic review provides a critical insight into the biochemical aetiology of bipolar disorder. It presents an overview of the findings collected from various researches which investigate the abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems and signal transduction system. The results confirm hypothesises established in earlier theories of the causes of Bipolar disorder form pharmacological investigations. However these results are correlation, culmination of these variables and others such as environmental and genetics may influence the development of bipolar disorder. Aims, Evaluation, implications and limitations of these studies are included in this review. Bipolar disorder also known as manic depressive disorder can have a negative effect on an individuals mood, relationships, and everyday life. This disorder can affect the cognitive functions and is known to impair cognitive areas such as attention, executive functions, learning, memory and psychomotor speed. Bipolar usually develops in late teens or early adulthood but can sometimes develop early on in childhood. Symptoms usually build up later on in life. The disorder can lead to poor school performance, damaged social lives and jobs. . It affects both sexes equally in all age groups and approximately 3-5% of the general population are affected (Baldessanni, 2002). Bipolar disorder is the most rigorous forms of all mental illness and is characterized by swinging moods .The clinical course of illness can vary from a mild depression to a rigorous form of mania. The condition has a high rate of recurrence and can lead to suicide if left untreated (15% of patients) this is most likely t o occur during a depressive state. Bipolar disorder is a severely debilitating brain affective disorder which has had very little extensive research conducted on; in particular the biochemistry component of the disorder has had relatively few research studies compared to genetics. Due to its high rate of suicide and reoccurrence rate it is essential to develop effective treatment to prevent the two main problems of bipolar disorder (Shastry, Burker S, 2005). The manifestations of the symptoms are often mistaken for unipolar depression (31%) and therefore misdiagnosis of bipolar often occurs (Berk et al, 2006). Research into the neuropathological aspect paves the way for more future developments in viable treatments, which should be more tolerable for patients for this affective mood disorder, this could include improving existing drug treatments. Although Bipolar is one of the oldest known mental illness it was never classified; the symptoms were described and examined throughout history and sometimes the etiologies which were established were imprudent. Mania was seen as occurring from an excess of yellow bile, or a mixture of black and yellow bile. The theory of a link between mania and depression goes back to the 2nd century AD. Soranus of Ephedrus (98-177 AD) described mania and depression as diseases with different etiologies; however, he acknowledged that many others consider melancholia a form of the disease of mania. Depression was formally known as melancholia. In 1650, a scientist named Richard Burton determined the characteristics of depression in The Anatomy of Melancholia. His findings are still used today in the mental health field, and he is established as being the father of the study of depression.Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), a German psychiatrist first termed the disease as manic depressive psychosis. He stud ied the disorder in untreated patients. In 1948, Dr. Cade a psychiatrist found out that Lithium Carbonate could be used as a successful treatment of manic depressive disorder. This was the first time a drug had been discovered that proved to be a successful treatment of this condition. The current term bipolar disorder replaced manic depressive disorder in 1980, and featured as diagnostic term in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-III).Most diagnosis of bipolar disorder are based on DSM IV (2000). Due to the complexity of brain function, the aetiology and pathophysiology of the disorder is not very well understood .The debate as to whether it is genetic factors or neurobiological factors which contribute to bipolar disorder is ongoing. Genetics have been known to play a major role in aetiology of bipolar disorder from early on, however many theories suggest neurotransmitter dysfunctions in depression, and therefore maybe the best explanation to finding the cause of Bipolar disorder would be to investigate a chemical basis of the disorder, as this review will examine. The pathophsysiolgy has recently been overtaking research on genetics of bipolar disorder. It would be essential to study the same neurotransmitters which have implicated in cause of depression and the areas affected by medications which alleviate symptoms of manic-depression (Ackenheil, 2001). Theories about neurotransmitter abnormalities in bipolar disorder have been created by experiments which have been created by experiments studying the effects of pharmacological treatments. Lithium was first used 40 years ago to treat bipolar disorder, studies on the effects of lithium, its target and mechanism of action on bipolar patients have indicated mostly monoamine neurotransmitter abnormalities are involved behind bipolar disorder however even though large amounts of research on neurotransmitter abnormalities have been conducted the aetiology of bipolar is far from completely understood. Many patient are unaffected by lithium, this shows that bipolar disorder may have more than one cause maybe this accounts for the various symptoms involved in this disorder. Many models focus on one neurotransmitter or neurotransmitter system as the case of bipolar disorder however these models cannot be sufficient enough to explain the array of symptoms. A valid general theory has to consider opposite effects of activity of neurons leading to the cycle of mood states, this could be a system involving the releases of transmitters, abnormality in cerebral activities or a regulatory protein involved in the interaction of various systems on levels of signal transduction. The debate above provides the basis for this review. To understand the neurochemistry of bipolar disorder the molecular and cellular systems have to be determined. This literature review is organized around the signal transduction pathways and central neurotransmitter systems and convergence of these areas to provide an insight into the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Neurotransmitters involved in this review are serotonin, dopamine and noradrenalin. The neuroamine exert their action through postsynaptic receptors which are coupled to Guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins). This is the main part of the intracellular signalling mentioned in this review. Other systems which have also been studied are sodium and calcium transport, disturbances in these systems have been implicated in the physiology of bipolar disorder, although this topic is beyond the scope of this review and there is relatively little research compared to G coupled proteins and cyclic AMP system, Given this, and the authors own personal interests, it was decided to focus on G coupled proteins and cyclic AMP system and the other main pathway phosphoinositide. 3. Aims This literature review aims to provide a critical evaluation of the research investigating the structures and circuits involved in the aetiology of bipolar affective disorder. Initially neurotransmitters and signal transduction will be examined and outlined by introducing the most popular and widely-used theories associated with the development of bipolar disorder and explain by what is meant by bipolar. Following this a search protocol is included: an explanation of how the reviewed articles were sourced and analysed. After which will follow a comprehensive review of the studies found in the search about how each neurotransmitter and signal transduction affect bipolar disorder. Also the disagreements and contradictions in the literature will be discussed. The implications and limitations of these findings of the studies found will then be considered and topics for future research presented. 4. Bipolar Affective Disorder 4.1. Diagnostic Criteria There are two types of bipolar disorder; Bipolar I and Bipolar II. Bipolar II consist of symptoms which are not as severe or prolonged as Bipolar I. The criteria for bipolar disorder is complex and is separated into six criteria sets theses are: single manic episode, most recent episode hypomania, most recent episode depressed, most recent episode mixed, most recent episode depressed and most recent episode unspecified. The table below summarizes the main DSM-IV classification (4th edition) criteria for the diagnosis of bipolar I and bipolar II disorder. Table 1 DSM-IV category Criteria Bipolar I Presence of one or more manic or mixed episodes, current or most recent episode: accompanied by one or more depressive episodes .Severe: with psychotic features In partial or full remission: With catatonic features With postpartum onset Current or most recent major depressive episode: significant distress occurs. Depressive state occurs more frequently then mania. Bipolar II No history of manic episode, not as severe as Bipolar I. Characterised by at least one hypomanic episode and depressive episode 4.2. Major depression Depression can distort an individuals way of thinking about themselves, their lives and of other people around them. Individuals who are diagnosed with depression tend to have higher negative views and fail to see the positive in any situation. Depression can also occur as anger. If episodes of low or depressed mood and a decrease in energy, activity, interest, or pleasure occur for two weeks the individual is diagnosed as major depressive ( DSM IV, 2000) 4.3. Mania Mania is the abnormal elevation of emotions, usually occurrence of irritable mood, inflated self esteem and may feature delusions or hallucinations (psychotic symptoms) when symptoms are less severe the patient is experiencing a hypomania episode. Mania can manifest itself in many forms. The DSM-IV splits the severity of mania symptoms into further subgroup for accurate diagnosis: Mild: symptoms barely meet criteria for an episode of mania. Moderate: There is a high increase in either activity level or impaired judgment. Severe without psychotic features: The patient requires continuous supervision to prevent physical harm to self or to others. Severe with psychotic features: The patient has delusions or hallucinations which may be mood-congruent or mood-incongruent. The table below summarises the symptoms of mania and depression Table 2 Mania Depression Need for sleep is decreased Increased talkativeness, pressure to keep talking, hyperactiveness Flight of ideas may be erratic- raving thoughts Incomprehensible speech Excess involvement in pleasurable activities e.g. impulsive sex- potential for painful consequence Having unrealistic beliefs in abilities Increasingly involved in goal relative activities, starting new projects Feeling constantly tired Having problems concentrating, remembering, and making decisions Lack of pleasure in activities Negative thoughts Being restless or irritable Changing eating, sleeping, or other habits (excess sleep usually occurs) Contemplating death or suicide, or attempting suicide. An individual with hypomanic episodes may have increased energy although the symptoms are not as severe as typical mania, the symptoms may come in episodes that last less than a week, do not require hospitalisation and will not be classified as full blown bipolar disorder I. A person having a hypo manic episode may feel they are on a high, be extremely productive, and function well. The individual may not perceive their behaviour as abnormal although these mood swings may be apparent to friends and family members. Without treatment, however, individuals with hypomania may develop severe mania or depression. 4.4. Definition issues Very few patients with bipolar alternate between episodes with pure mania or pure depression, many however have a variety of patterns and are regularly in a mixed state and rapid cycling between mania and depression occurs. Some experience months of depression followed by months of mania, some can swing states in a matter of hours (Berk et al 2005) this is usually defined as bipolar spectrum and can complicate diagnosis. There are unclear boundaries which can limit the selection of appropriate treatment. Accurate diagnosis on basis of clinical interviews may not be possible as many patients at the time of interview are in one phase. The psychotic symptoms reflect the persons extreme mood. For example, if a person is having a manic episode he/she may experience psychotic symptoms such as believing he or she is famous, has a lot of money, or has special powers which may make them invincible , this can be quite dangerous and can lead to death( Bauer, Michael et al, 2002). On the other h and, a person experiencing a depressive episode may believe he or she is ruined and penniless, or has committed a crime which in turn can lead to suicide. Due to these psychotic symptoms in individuals with bipolar disorder are sometimes wrongly diagnosed as having schizophrenia, another severe mental illness that is associated with hallucinations and delusions. People with bipolar disorder may also have other behavioural problems. Many turn to alcohol or substances, others tend to have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post traumatic stress disorder (Strakowski S.M. et al, 1998) so initially its not easy to recognize these problems as signs of a major mental illness. Individuals with Bipolar disorder sometimes go through states where they exhibit minimal symptoms however they still have the vulnerability for mood deregulation, this state is called euthymia (Strakowski et al.2004). There are no separate criteria for diagnosis of children although it has been stated that bipolar disorder in children is slightly different from bipolar in adults. 4.5. Treatment The treatment for Bipolar I Disorder is usually lifelong therapy with a mood-stabilizer this can be Lithium, Carbamazepine, or Divalproex / Valproic acid often in combination with an antipsychotic medication. Many of these medications are anticonvulsants except for lithium. Anticonvulsants medications help control moods although are usually used to control seizures. An antipsychotic medication and/or a benzodiazepine medication are often added to the mood-stabilizer in mania. In depression, Quetiapine, Olanzapine, or Lamotrigine is frequently taken with the mood-stabilizer. Alternations occur between medications, in depression, the mood-stabilizer is sometimes substituted for another mood-stabilizer, or in some cases two mood-stabilizers can be used together. Occasionally, antidepressant medication is used in depression. However as antidepressant medication can trigger mania, antidepressant medication is always taken in combination with a mood-stabilizer or antipsychotic medication t o prevent mania (Ackenheil, 2001). Research has shown that the most effective treatment for bipolar disorder is a combination of supportive psychotherapy, and the use of a mood-stabilizer and antipsychotic medication (Miklowitz D.J. 2006) 5. Monoaminergic Neurotransmitter systems 5.1. Serotonergic system Serotonin pathways originate in the raphe nuclei and project throughout the cerebral cortex. Serotonin is known to interact with the other neurotransmitters, it modulates different neuronal activities, Serotonin triggers sleep wake cycles, mood and emotional behaviour; deficiency can lead to migraines (Birkmeyer, W. and P. Riederer, 1989) this neurotransmitter increases the threshold for pain, reduces arousal functions, hyperactivity results in improved appetite, weight increase, an increased urge to sleep, lowered consciousness, slower thought processes, and lack of drive, most of which have been shown to be symptoms of depression in bipolar disorder. Serotonergic cell bodies originate mainly in the upper Pons and the midbrain-specifically, the median and Dorsal raphe nuclei, the Candal locus ceruleus, the Postrema area, and the inter peduncular area. These neurons project to the basal ganglia, the limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. (Kaplan et al. 1994). 5.2. Noradrenergic system The Noradrenalin (NA) system originates in the locus coeruleus, lateral tegmental area in the brain stem and projects diffusely through axonal pathways to the cortex, amygdale and hippocampus, in the CNS it is involved in a wide range of neurological and psychological functions, which include cognition, attention, emotion, and memory formation (Robbins and Everitt 1995, Moore and Card 1984). Activation of NA neurons increases cellular responsiveness to sensory information as inhibition of the background activity of the target neurons occurs and also increases the selectivity of the responses to relevant stimuli (Foote et al 1983). NA is also involved in the fight or flight reaction. NA changes the efficiency of the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission in particular neurons although it is dependent on the subtypes of adrenergic receptor (AR) and secondary messengers (Dohlman Et al 1991). 5.3 Dopamingenic system There are eight major dopaminergic pathways in the brain. The three main pathways originate from the midbrain, they are as follow: Mesolimbic pathway-consists of a bundle of dopaminergic fibres which are associated with the reward circuit. This pathway develops from the ventral tegmental area and innervates various formations of the limbic system, which include the nucleus accumbens. The mesolimbic pathway is involved in memory and is important for motivating behaviours. Mesocortical pathway also originates in the ventral tegmental area, although also projects to the frontal cortex and surrounding areas. Dysfunction in this pathway might be the cause of some of the symptoms such as hallucinations and disordered thinking in bipolar disorder. Medications used to reduce psychotic delirium block this pathway, and also reduce the overall activity of the frontal lobes. Tuberoinfundibular pathway- is located in the hypothalamus and releases dopamine into the portal vessels thus regulating the functioning of the pituitary. These distributed pathways are responsible for behavioural areas such as impulsivity and attention, reward seeking, emotional processing, working memory, and other executive functions. The actions of the neurotransmitter dopamine are usually connected through G-protein-coupled receptor slow transmission, which in turn modulates fast neurotransmission in glutaminergic and GABA- ergic neurones. There are two types of dopamine receptors D1-type and D2-type. D1-type receptors (D1 and D5) are mostly coupled to Gas and then stimulate the production of the second messenger cyclic-AMP (cAMP), whereas D2-type receptors (D2, D3, and D4 included) are coupled to Gai à ¢Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ o and decrease the production of cAMP and related downstream pathway. The various types of dopamine receptors are diffused throughout different areas of the brain (Greengard P. 2001) 6. Signalling transduction 6.1. G- Coupled proteins and Cyclic AMP system G-proteins are an important component of the intracellular signalling pathway; they interlink receptors in the membrane to the different intracellular effecter molecules which in turn produces responses. G-proteins are made up of 3 sub units: an a subunit which binds and hydrolyzes guanosine triphosphate (GTP) these can be further divided into subunits of Gas, Ga, Gaq, Gao and b and g subunits which are firmly bound to one another. Various combinations of protein structures can be established out of these subunits thus creating a number of receptors for different or similar signal transduction systems. Small changes in the subunits of the G proteins can highly alter the order of events in signalling from receptors to the intracellular targets (Birnbaumer L, 1992, Spiegel et al., 1992) These G-protein coupled receptors stimulate or inhibit mainly two second messenger systems: cAMP and Phosphoinositol After receptor activation, G-proteins connect to various effectors (enzymes). This pathway involves coupling of G protein (inhibitory or stimulatory) sub units to enzymes for example adenyl cyclase (AC). Different forms of the enzyme AC catalyze to produce cAMP this is via adenosine triphosphate (ATP).cAMP controls cellular functions such as metabolism and gene transcription.As cAMP degrades quite quickly in the brain by phosphodiesterase binding of cAMP to another enzyme cAMP-dependent protein kinase (as protein kinase A) is used as an indirect measurement of cAMP. This enzyme is critical for connecting any short term changes in neurotransmitter signalling to long term neurobiological changes (Beavo J.A, 1974, Scott JD, 1991). 6.2. Phosphoinositide (PI) Pathway Another signalling path way involved in the coupling of neurotransmitter receptors is phosphoinositide , this pathway involves the phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase (PLC) enzyme, and the G-protein subtypes Gq/G11, (Perez et al ,2000) Hydrolization of inositol-containing phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to two important second messengers: 1, 2-diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) is induced by the activation of the receptors which stimulate PLC (Smrcka et al 1991). Inositol monophosphate (IP) is made by conversion of IP3. IP is then again converted into inositol which is then available for resynthesis of PI. Lithium decreases the level of inositol in the brain, it blocks the conversion of IP to inositol by interfering with inositol monophosphate phosphatise conversion of IP to inositol. 7. Theories There have been a number of theories of depression and mania separately. The main neurotransmitter system implicated in the development of bipolar disorder is the serotonin system and is still the most widely studied system; however there is evidence suggesting that other neurotransmitter systems also play important roles (Barros et al. 2002). The biogenic amine theory of depression (Bunney and Davis 1965; Schildkraut 1965) is based upon a link between pharmacological alterations (medications taken by Bipolar patients) of monoamines and modulation of affective disorders. Decreasing amine neurotransmitters (noradrenalin (NA) and serotonin (5-HT) in the synaptic clefts) leads to an increased incidence of bipolar affective disorder. Another theory suggests that antidepressants alter the concentration of neurotrophic factors which are essential for neuronal survival (Duman et al, 1997; Duman, 2002). Although recently it has been suggested that instead of being a simple case of depletion in some crucial cerebral transmitter; concentrations depression may be the result of a disturbed balance between various regulatory systems, which may lead to transmitter over activity in some brain regions (Syvà ¤lahti 1994). Another hypothesis by Harro Oreland (1996) the neurobiological aetiology of depression may lie in the alteration of the noradrenergic innervations from the locus coeruleus, which, in turn, may lead to dysfunction of serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission. Theories associated with the Multicomponent, cellular signalling pathways suggest that the interaction at various levels is important, which form complex signaling networks essentially allowing the cell to obtain, process, and respond to information (Bourne HR, Nicoll R,1993, Weng G et al, 1999). The cascades of signals are assisted by these networks in a matter of milliseconds, they are crucial for physiological processes as they can alter the strength and duration of outputs and feedback. Thus abnormalities in these pathways may have variety of affects in different neurological disorders (Bhalla U.S. 1999). Patients treated with antidepressants have increased activation of cAMP system in particular regions of the brain. This causes the high expression rate of the transcription factors that are involved in this system (cAMP response element binding protein- CREB) which leads to the increased expression of neutrophic factors in hippocampus and cerebral cortex neurons theses neurotrophic factors are essential for survival and functioning of certain neurons these studies have lead to the molecular and cellular theory of depression. 8.Method 8.1. Search protocol A breakdown of how the search was conducted is presented in Figure 1 below: Less detail Level of detail in search more detail Start Time of search finish Keywords Bp = Bipolar Disorder S= Serotonin D= Dopamine N= Neurotransmitter ST= Signal Transduction NA= neuroadrelaline GP= G proteins PI= Phosphoinositide cAMP= cAMP pathway 8.2. Selection method Articles were searched on several journal databases these included web of knowledge, Science Direct and Medline. Key words were chosen to assist with the search. Key words included: signal transduction, neurotransmitters, bipolar disorder, mania, serotonin, dopamine, noradrenalin and depression. Articles were selected by at first by reading the abstract and deciding whether the article was directly answering or related to the review question. If this link was established, the article was considered as having passed the first stage of screening Once all databases had been searched for those articles that passed stage one screening, further analysis was carried out. Articles werent excluded on basis of country of origin or date of publishing. Many studies incorporated different factors for example 8.3. Articles excluded Certain articles which were found within the search protocol were not included in this literature review. There is a large amount of literature investigating the genetic links to neurotransmitter receptors and bipolar disorder that purely focused on this factor although articles that purely focused on this factor were not included in the review. 9. Findings Direct and indirect methods which have been used in the studies include: brain studies, CSF studies, platelet studies and psychopharmacological have all been included in this review as it is difficult, to measure the chemical and physiological activity within the brain in vivo. Peripheral lymphocytes share many common characteristics with neuronal cells thus considered suitable models for testing various hypothesises. Lymphocytes have various neurotransmitter receptors on their cell membrane 9.1.Neurotransmitter studies Noradrenergic system has been shown to be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. In depressive states, noradrenergic system has under functioned these results from these studies are taken from indirect measurements of noradrenalin metabolism in body fluids. Measuring desmthylimipramine, the growth hormone secretion shows estimate activity of noradrenergic neurons in the brain (Laakmann et al 1990). Abnormalities in the level of noradrenalin in plasma of patients has been observed which support the hypothesis that this neurotransmitter is involved in the aetiology of bipolar disorder , in subjects with mania the concentrations of NA has been increased ( Manji, Lenox, 2000) also the metabolite of noradrenalin (-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol -MHPG) has been established to be higher concentration in the urinary and cerebrospinal fluid of mania state than in depressive state ( Goodwin et al, 1990, Bowden CC 1997, Schatzberg AF et al 1995, Manji et al 1997). These were all longitudinal studies and therefore had higher validity compared to studies only examining one state of mood in bipolar disorder. Higher values were also noted in unipolar depression compared to bipolar depression (Goodwin FR, Jamison KR 1990, Manji et al 2000). Lower noradrenalin output and altered sensitivity of a2 receptor activity have been discovered in depressive states this has been indicated by the lowered growth hormone response to clonindine leading to a decrease in noradrenalin activity compared to in maniac state where noradrenalin release is increased (Delgado, 2000; Manji Lenox, 2000). Increased levels of a2 receptors in the hypothalamus, amygdale, hippocampus and cerebellum have also been reported (Delgado 2000, Young et al 1994, Vawter M.P et al 2000,). Another group of studies on serotonin and serotonin metabolism have shown that a lower concentration of the serotonin metabolite 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) was found in bipolar disorder patients, particularly in aggressive bipolar patients and those who have attempted or contemplated suicide but were raised in patients with mania (Manji Lenox, 2000, Traskman et al 1981, Swann et al 1983, Asberg et al, 1984). Smaller numbers of serotonin uptake sites were also found in post mortem brains of depressed individuals with bipolar disorder ( Leake et al, 1991) other drug studies on Tryptophan, an essential amino acid on which serotonin synthesis is dependent on have established that prescribing tryptophan to patients with depression may sometimes result in the reversal of the therapeutic effect of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor administration and depression may reoccur, this suggests that serotonin levels in brains of bipolar disorder patients may not be the only cause of this disorder. Extensive results from CSF experiments, serotonin receptor and re uptake site binding studies, pharmacologic studies have been achieved which support the theory that alterations of serotonergic neurotransmission in depressive states occur (Goodwin et al 1990, Maes et al 1995, Garlow et al 1999). In studies of CSF 5-HIAA in patients with bipolar disorder in mania episode has generally produced inconsistent and conflicting results (Goodwin 1990, Shiah et al 2000). Most studies found no difference in levels of CSF 5-HIAA levels between depressed state and manic state, two reported both manic and depressive states have lowered CSF 5-HIAA levels and one reported manic have significantly lowered levels of CSF 5-HIAA compared to control subjects. More research in this area needs to be conducted in order to achieve consistent results (Goodwin, 1990). Maes et al (1995) and Garlow et al (1999) researches found decreased concentration of radioligand binding to the serotonin transporter which is involved in taking up serotonin from the synaptic cleft. These results were found both in platelets and mid brain of depressed subjects. Positron emission tomography (PET) studies have also reported decreases in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5- HT)1A receptor binding potential in the raphe and hippocampus and amygdala of the brains of depressed patients, especially in patients with bipolar and in unipolar patients with history of bipolar in their family, indicating a genetic link ( Drevets, 1999) To produce a more direct measurement of serotonergic system function neurotransmitter depletion models are used in the case of bipolar disorder tryptophan depletion to lower serotonin levels is used. Serotonin synthesis is dependent on Tryptophan, an essential amino acid. Depletion of tryptophan is created by the Australia: Inflation, Balance of Payment and Monetary Policy Australia: Inflation, Balance of Payment and Monetary Policy What is the main measure of inflation movements in Australia and what does it represent? CPI refers to the Consumer Price Index and is used as the primary measure of inflation movements within Australia over time. CPI can be defined as a measure of how the prices of goods and services change over time. It is a measure of overall cost a typical consumer pays for the purchase of goods and services. A larger increase in CPI represents an inflationary trend in the economy and decrease in CPI shows deflationary situation. It also helps in comparing the inflation patterns with other countries of the world. CPI can be calculated using the following formula: Inflation refers to the persistent rise in the general price level in the economy. Rising inflation negatively affects the purchasing power of a typical consumer, therefore, a typical family has to spend more to maintain his existing standard of living. We can estimate the rate of inflation in the following way: Where: refers to Inflation rate in the current financial year. refers to CPI in the preceding financial year. refers to CPI in the current financial year. CPI is considered as a benchmark inflation guide for the Australian economy The balance of payment is a record of monetary transactions between Australia and the rest of the world- it is made up of two accounts. What are the names of the accounts and what do they measure? Balance of payment keeps track of inflow and outflow of money from the economy of a country. It consist of two main accounts:- Current Account Capital Account Current Account The current account measures trade flow in and out of the country. In other words, it represents country’s exports and imports. It consist of following three components. Trade in goods and services Net Foreign Income Current Tranfer/Foreign aid Trade in Goods and Services The most important component of the current accounts is the balance of trade showing the country’s imports and exports of goods and services. If exports are larger than imports, it is a balance of trade surplus and if exports are fewer than imports shows a balance of trade deficit. Net foreign Income If local companies or individuals of a country (let say Australia) purchase bonds and stocks in other countries, the money will come into the country in the form of interest and dividend payments and will add to the net foreign income. On the other hand, the money that leaves the country in the form of interest payments and dividends to foreign investors, royalties paid by the subsidiaries (located in Australia) to their overseas head offices decreases the total net foreign income. Current transfer / Foreign Aid Grants/ donation and workers (foreigners) send money to their home countries. Current Account Surplus and Deficit Current account surplus means that country is earning more than spending or in other incoming money (credits) exceeds outgoing money (debit). It means the country has more money to lend to other countries. Whereas, the current account deficit shows that the spendings of a country are higher than income/earnings. Capital Account It tracks the movements of funds for investment into and out of the country the capital account consist of four main components such as: Direct investment: Portfolio Investment Government Capital Official Reserve Direct investment: It refers to the foreign direct investment when the investor acquires ownership and control over these assets. Portfolio Investment It represents money that flows into and out of the country for the purchase of financial assets like stocks and bonds, whereas, the payment of the dividends and interest from these foreign investments will be the part of the current account and will not be counted towards capital account. Government Capital It refers to the Government borrowing from and repayments to overseas countries. Official Reserve The net foreign exchange transactions of central banks. Capital Account Surplus and Deficit The capital account surplus means more inflow of foreign capital into the country in the form of investments and the capital account deficit shows outflow of foreign capital from the country for investments compared to the domestic investment. A capital account surplus is usually being balanced by the current account deficit and vice versa. Together, these accounts constitute Balance of Payment (BOP), because of their offsetting nature the complete understanding of these two accounts is crucial for traders. How does the Reserve Bank of Australia, Institute monetary policy? Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) was constituted under the Reserve Bank Act 1959, and is responsible for preparation and carrying out of monetary policy. By definition monetary policy has been a process by which the monetary authority holds the provision of money, often targeting interest rates to achieve economic targets of low inflation and long term growth stability. Objectives of Monetary policy In setting monetary policy RBA is responsible to maintain the pursuit: Stability of Australian currency Full Employment Economic Prosperity and welfare of the people of Australia. In order to achieve above mentioned objectives, the Reserve Bank of Australia sets a targeted official cash rate (interbank overnight rate). The cash rate adjustments influence the other interest rate in the economy, expectations of community, exchange rate and ultimately involve the pace of rising prices (inflation rate). The appropriate target inflation rate agreed by RBA and Govt is at 2 to 3 percent on average over the cycle, as this rate will not materially affect the spending and investment patterns in the economy. As monetary policy is a means of influencing the economy by controlling the supply of money. By Act of Parliament RBA can manage the quantity of circulation of money through changing cash rate, buying and selling Govt securities and by making changes to statutory reserve deposits. The RBA usually meets once in every month, examine the health of the economic system as a whole and by reviewing the checklist of different economic indicators both domestic and international to decide on their monetary policy. Any decision/changes needed at the conclusion of the meeting, then communicated publicly. There are two types of monetary policies which are as follows: Expansionary monetary policy: It stimulates production and employment through an increase in the supply of money on credit in the market. The RBA can implement this policy by decreasing the cash rate or lowering reserve requirements in order to promote borrowing and spending in the economy. Small businesses often benefit with the execution of the expansionary monetary policy, but it has some drawbacks like decrease in value of currency, raise in inflation, output shortage, higher demands of wage etc. The objective of the RBA is to balance the available money to interest rate in order to ensure expansionary effect on the economic system. Contractionary Monetary policy: The primary aim of this type of policy is to draw out money out of the economic system to prevent the rising prices, decrease consumer spending and increase the value of currency. The activities through which RBA tightens monetary policy includes decreasing the official cash rate or by increasing the reserve requirements from other banks make it harder for consumers and investors to borrow money and persuade them not to drop more money. A monetary contraction further stabilize the prices of goods as inflation goes down. This policy slows down production because there is reduce demand for their products. An investor can also plan to cease planned expansion and this may cause unemployment in the future. What are the implications of rising or high inflation? In simple language inflation means an overall increase in prices of goods and services in the economy or decrease in the purchasing power of money over time. Inflation is caused by an increase in demand for commodities and services strongly outweighs the supply of commodities and services in the economy. Inflation rate can easily be calculated on monthly or yearly basis by applying the CPI. Inflation rate in Australia as reported by the Australian Bureau of Statistic is 2.9% in the first three months of 2014, up from 2.7 percent in the previous quarter but still it is below market forecasts. This cost increase was primarily due to seasonal increases in the cost of health care, school fees, transport and by large increases in tobacco duties. Impact of High Inflation on the Economy: High inflation is harmful to the economy as it moves in many ways such as: Distort Consumer Behavior: Consumer purchases their future required goods in advance because of the fear of price increase this can create a sudden shortage of goods in the market. Higher Wage Demands: Prices increase lead to higher wage demand as the fixed income earners require more money to keep their previous living standard. This process is called wage-price spiral. Greater Uncertainity: During inflation, rapid fluctuation in inflation rate can undermine business confidence. As it makes difficult for business organizations to accurately determine prices for their products and their returns from investment i.e. budgeting and investment valuation become difficult Firms may postpone their investment expansion because of lower consumer spending and this will adversely affect the economic growth in the economy. Savings Decrease: At high inflation times, people spend more money to keep their previous living standard therefore least amount they keep. As savings in the economy decrease less loanable funds are available for the firms to invest. Unemployment Rise: When the firms decide to curtail their current production or lay off their planned expansions they will not hire more workers this leads to lower job opportunities available in the economy. Damage to Export Competitiveness: Due to high inflation, the production cost of goods rise and their export will become less competitive in the international marketplace. This has an adverse result on the Balance of payments. Social Unrest: High inflation lead to a general feeling of discomfort for households as their purchasing power is falling and they have to postpone many of their desires. Hoarding in Economy Increase: Rapid increase in prices can sometime result in hoarding of basic commodities to gain more profit margins. What is the main economic indicator of growth in the economy? Economic indicator shows in which the direction of the economy is going. There are three primary types of economic Indicators i.e Leading, Coincident and Lagging indicators. In monitoring the economic growth and health, Govt, reserve bank (RBA) and other economist not only observe one indicator, simply stick with a large no domestic and of key economic indicators like inflation, GDP, inflation, Employment, wages, consumer an international d investment spending, interest rate, Balance of payment, Exchange rate etc. But the most comprehensive measure of economic performance is GDP (Gross Domestic Product). It is the best measure as it includes the output of all sectors and gives overall performance of the economy. It is likewise applied to evaluate the quality and success of Govt policy to attempt to attain the target economic growth. GDP by definition is the total value of all final goods and services produced in a country within a year. There are two methods normally applied to calculate GDP: Expenditure Approach Income Approach Expenditure Approach:- The total amounts spent on the goods a and services produced in a nation by households, firms, Govt and foreigners. Households consumptions (C) include all spending for the consumption of goods and services, business firms also consumes product in the form of investment (I) in capital goods. Capital goods means the tools and technology firms purchase to use in the production. Govt also consume products in the form of infrastructure goods (roads, bridges), services like education (public schools), health care (old age/poor persons medical coverage). Foreigners when purchase our nations goods (X) it increase GDP in the form of and when our other nation purchase other countries (M) products it decreases nations GDP. The formula to calculate GDP by expenditure Approach:- GDP = C + I + G + ( X – M ) Income Approach In an economy in different ways, such as rentals (Land), Wages depending on skilled /unskilled Capital income (Interest income from their savings at banks or other savings institutions) and in of profits from managing their own businesses (Enterpreurship). If we add all these types of incomes, we get the total of the nations income. The formula to calculate GDP by income approach is given below. GDP = Rentals (R) + Wages (W) + Interest (I) + Profits (P) For the economy as a whole total Income is equal to total expenditure because every dollar spend by a buyer is a dollar income for a seller. The limitations of using GDP as economic indicator:- GDP does not count for volunteer work which people do freely. People work freely in schools, hospitals etc.. GDP didnt include the effect of rebuilding after a natural disaster or war. Rebuilding increase the GDP. GDP does not consider the quality of goods. The consumer may go for cheap/low quality goods instead of expensive one this may lead to repetitive buying as of low quality aspect. More buying pattern affects the affect the GDP. Nevertheless despite of its few limitations economist uses GDP as to assess whether the purchasing ability of the nation increase / decline in the economy and also to quantify the relative growth, wealth and prosperity of different countries.